Background

There is always the need and desire to eat in man, but its adequacy really matters. This adequacy is determined by the quality and effective utilization of the nutrient consumed. Most working class Nigerians especially in the big cities depend on ready-made convenient foods for their nutritional requirements, such foods include; biscuit, breads, cakes, roasted corn, roasted plantain, plantain chips, fried maize paste (‘kokoro’) and others. These foods can serve as main meals or in between snacks for both children and adults (Olumakaiye et al., 2008). The saga of human nutrition and the improvement of human health has been reflected in the effort of many scientists who have the belief that human performances and wellbeing, both physical and mental depends primarily on what is eaten (FAO, 1994). Many people are paying considerable attention to what they eat, and with the idea that food intake is closely related with the sense of well-being, more and more people seek for nutritional information and this advance in knowledge towards nutrition.

Fish has now become an increasingly important source of animal protein and other element necessary for the maintenance of a healthy body. Fish constitute an important food component for a large section of world population. They come after meat and poultry as staple animal protein foods where fish forms a cheap source of protein (Wafaa et al., 2011). FAO (1994) asserted that fish contributes about 60% of the world supply of protein and that 60% of the developing countries derive more than 30% of their animal protein from fish.

Fish allows for protein improved nutrition in that it has a high biological value in term of high protein retention in the body, low cholesterol level and presence of essential amino acids (Emikpe et al., 2011). It also contains essential minerals, omega-3 fatty acids and vitamins. Today, even more people are turning to fish as a healthy alternative to red meat (Adebayo-Tayo et al., 2012). They are widely accepted on the menu card and form a much cherished delicacy that cuts across socio-economic age, religious and educational barriers.

Consumption of snack food is a worldwide practice. Snack foods are important vehicles for delivery of essential nutrients because of the growing change in eating habits (Henshaw and Agunbiade, 2004). To gain consumer acceptance of a fish based product rather than the carbohydrate snacks, the consumer would have to be convinced of the quality and possible nutritional advantages with respect to the standard product it is replacing. Fish snacks are value added products which may be either mince or mince-based products, battered and breaded or coated products or surimi based products. Example of such value added products are fish crackers, fish samosa, fish pie, fish ball, fish finger, fish burger, etc. These fish products are further enhanced with other food products to increase the willingness to consume fish; such products are flour, potato, etc. The added products are also very rich in one or more other food source.

Present trends of marketing reflect a rapidly growing demand for such processed foods that are more convenient to handle, store and prepare. Factors responsible for such situation are increasing number of working women; reasonably increase in income, education, awareness and consciousness towards quality, freshness, nutrition, hygiene and health etc. This has led to the development of several fishery products varied in taste, texture and appearance (Pagarkar et al., 2011).

Fish snack production is another sure way of better utilization of fish production which is readily available for human consumption as a result of the changing consumer’s taste. The product can be used to solve the problem of protein energy malnutrition.

Peanut cake (Kulikuli) is a groundnut-based snack indigenous to the West African coasts. Being a snack, it is consumed by all age range but more specifically by school-age children and the middle age. Kulikuli is usually produced from groundnut during groundnut oil extraction or otherwise, and it is simply regarded as the fried residue obtained from this process (Adebesin et al., 2001). The consumption of peanut cake (kulikuli) in most West African countries and Nigeria may be due to the fact that this product is mostly consumed by the low income populace and therefore not seen as a major food.

Fresh water fishes are known to be very rich in protein and minerals and they also have very low fat (Fawole et al., 2007). Sarotherodon galilaeus is a tilapia species within the family Cichlidae, and they are exclusively associated with Africa and the Middle East (Trewavas, 1983). It is one of the most economically important fishes of tropical African freshwaters (Fryer and Iles, 1972). Sarotherodon galilaeus is highly valued as food source due to its many beneficial qualities, which are attributed to its wealth of nutrients, vitamins, and minerals, including significant amounts of protein, omega-3 fatty acids, selenium, phosphorus, potassium, vitamin B12, niacin, vitamin B6, and pantothenic acid.

Microorganisms are present everywhere and it happens to be the first organisms that cause degradation of food products. Although a few microorganisms may bring about desirable changes in food, others spoil the foods by deteriorating their organoleptic quality and by production of toxin which may be detrimental to health. For this reason there is a need to reduce the contamination of food and spoilage caused by microorganisms. Herbs have been used in foods since ancient times, not only as folk medicine, but also as flavoring agents and food preservatives (Cutler, 1995), due to their antimicrobial activity against certain pathogens (Tepe et al., 2004) and wide array of medicinal values (Wood et al., 2001). Dietary herbs and spices have been traditionally used as food additives throughout the world not only to improve the sensory characteristics of foods but also to extend the shelf-life by reducing or eliminating survival of pathogenic bacteria and they also act as antioxidants. Many herbs and spice extracts possess antimicrobial activity against a range of bacteria, yeast and molds (Friedman et al., 2004).

A number of fish processing techniques are in operation in Nigeria. These include chilling, freezing, salting, canning, heat drying and smoking. However, smoking is the most popular method of fish processing (Eyo, 2000) and among the several methods of long term preservation of fish, heat drying or smoking is perhaps the simplest method as it does not require sophisticated equipment or highly skilled workers (Olayemi et al., 2011). Smoked-dried fish is the most acceptable form of fish product in Nigeria (Yanar, 2007). Heat drying is the oldest and most common method of fish preservation in many developing countries (Kumolu-Johnson et al., 2010). It is a method of preservation effected by combination of drying and decomposition of naturally produced chemical resulting from thermal breakdown of wood (Tobor, 2004). Heat drying is one of the oldest method of preservation, giving a characteristic flavour and colour to the product and increasing its shelf life. The preservative effect is due to the presence of some antimicrobial compounds in smoke such as phenols and formaldehyde (Muratore and Licciardello, 2005).

Packaging assists the preservation of the world’s resources through the prevention of products until they have performed their function. The principal roles of packaging are to contain, protect or preserve food and inform the user. Thereby, food waste may be minimized and the health of the consumer safeguarded.

Fishing is one of the oldest economic occupations of mankind and is carried out for subsistence and commercial purposes. In Africa, the governments of the continent under the tutelage of the African Union, have identified the great potential of fish farming and are determined to encourage private sector investment (NEPAD, 2005). In Africa, the fish sector provides income for over 10 million people engaged in fish production, processing and trade (NEPAD, 2005). Value addition means any additional activity that in one way or another changes nature of the product thus adding to its value at the time of sale. Value addition is one of possible approaches to raise profitability since the industry is becoming highly competitive and increasingly expensive.

The broad objective of the study is to evaluate the sensory qualities and economic viability of Sarotherodon galilaeus snack.

1 Materials and Methods

1.1 Study area

The study was carried out at the laboratory of the Department of Animal and Environmental Biology, Faculty of Science, AdekunleAjasin University, Akungba-Akoko, Ondo State, Nigeria.

1.2 Sample collection

A total of twelve Sarotherodon galilaeus were procured fresh from artisanal fisherman operating on Egbe reservoir at the landing site at Ode-Ekiti, Gbonyin Local Government Area, Ekiti State. The fish were collected in plastic container containing ice and immediately transported to the Department of Animal and Environmental Biology laboratory.

1.3 Sample identification and handling

Fish were identified as described using the method of Idodo-Umeh (2003), Olaosebikan and Raji (2004). The samples were washed to rid them of dirt, drained and thereafter weighed to the nearest 1g with a Camry^® digital weighing balance (Model: EK5350, 5 kg Max.). The total and standard lengths were measured to the nearest 0.1 cm using a 60 cm fish measuring board calibrated at 0.1 cm. After taking the biometric data, the fish were scaled, gutted and cleaned in potable water. Each fish was then filleted and weight of the fillets, remnants and waste recorded.

1.4 Spice preparation

The ingredients used for the preparation of the spice were groundnut cake (kulikuli), garlic, ginger, Negro pepper, black pepper, cayenne pepper and salt. The groundnut cake (kulikuli) was crushed and ground into a powdery form. The cayenne pepper was pounded in order to remove the flakes from the seeds, the flakes was ground into powdery form. The Negro pepper and black pepper was sorted in order to remove unwanted particles, they were also ground separately. Garlic and ginger used for this study was in processed form (in powder form). Appropriate portions of ingredients were weighed using a Camry^® kitchen weighing balance (Model: EK5350, 5 kg Max.), put together and mixed thoroughly with Moulinex^® kitchen blender for homogeneity Table 1 shows the proportion of ingAcknowledgement composite spice.

1.5 Crude extraction

Eight hundred and twenty seven grams of Ocimum gratissinum leaves and 940 grams of Vernonia amygdalina leaves were collected and washed to remove unwanted materials. Ocimum gratissinum and Vernonia amygdalina were allowed to drain off excess water. The leaves were then squeezed in separate bowls in order to get the crude extracts. Based on the taste range finding test, the crude extracts were diluted to acceptable taste. Ocimum gratissinum extract was diluted with potable water to give 54.5% concentration and six grams of salt was added to the concentration. Vernonia amygdalina was diluted with potable water to give 23.1% concentration and eight grams of salt added to the crude extract. Equal volume of Ocimum gratissinum and Vernonia amygdalina crude extracts were mixed together and thereafter, diluted with water to give a concentration of 45.5%, into which was added eight grams of salt.

1.6 Pre-processing of sample

Fillets were cut into small pieces (2.5×6.0 cm) and staked on sterilized palm frond (40 cm length) earlier soaked in potable water for five hours. The staked fillets were soaked in the already prepared brine/crude extract plus brine solution for two minutes; seven stakes each were soaked in Vernonia amygdalina brine, Ocimum gratissinum brine, in mixture of Vernonia amygdalina and Ocimum gratissinum brine and in brine without extract which served as the control. After two minutes of soaking in the solutions, the stakes were removed and allowed to drain. Vegetable oil was applied with a brush to the stakes and the prepared spice was applied to the stakes.

1.7 Drying processing

Campfire like fire was prepared using firewood and charcoal in a circular pattern and the spiced stakes were randomly arranged round the smoldering fire at a distance of 27-30 cm away from the fire to prevent the stakes from charring. The sticks were arranged when there was no visible sign of smoke. The part of the stick without micro fillets was stuck into the earth in a slant format towards the fire. The stakes were turned occasionally to prevent charring. The drying process was done for eight hours, at this time all the stakes were completely cooked and dried. The prepared snacks were allowed to cool in readiness for further studies.

1.8 Production of condiment (Joy fish)

Remnants of the fish samples were dried along with the snacks. This took 12 hours for complete dryness. The dried remnant was ground to powdery form after which garlic, ginger, salt, Negro pepper, cayenne pepper and the powdered remnant was mixed to produce condiment. The condiment was weighed and packaged in polythene using the standard of Tiger curry^®.

1.9 Sensory evaluation

Thirty-two panelists of both sexes within age bracket 35-50 years composed of both the teaching and non-teaching staff of Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba-Akoko, Ondo State participated in the sensory evaluation of the snacks. The snacks were served to the panelist according to the four treatments applied. The sensory evaluation was performed using the method of Iwe (2002). The evaluation was scored based on a six point hedonic scale. The attributes evaluated include aroma, appearance, crunchiness, taste, juiciness, texture, acceptability and likely pay for the snack. Panelists were also given opportunity to make additional comments on the snacks. Panelists were served cracker biscuit and water after each treatment test (Akande et al., 1988). This is to remove or reduce after consumption taste or feeling.

1.10 Economic analysis

Cost: data on the cost of fish, spice, firewood, charcoal, leaves, transportation, and other materials used were summed up.

Total revenue: The average probable price per stake obtained during the sensory evaluation was used to multiply the total number of snacks and this was regarded as the revenue. One production cycle was estimated to last three days.

Profitability/loss: the total cost was subtracted from the total revenue to give the profitability/loss.

Benefit cost ratio: The benefit/cost ratio was calculated using the equation:

Where: GM = Gross Margin (N), TR = Total Revenue (N), TVC = Total Variable Cost (N)

Net profit was determined using the expression:

Where: TFC = Total Fixed Cost (depreciation), π = Net Profit (N)

The viability test was based on:

Depreciation was calculated using straight line method i.e. dividing the cost on number of serviceable life span of equipment. Appendix 1 shows the depreciation value of the material for one production cycle.

1.11 Statistical analysis

Data obtained where applicable were subjected to one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) using SAS (2008) software. Duncan multiple range test were used to assess the homogeneity of the variances. Test was done at the 5% level of significance for analysis of the presence or absence of significant differences between the treatments.

2 Results

2.1 Biometrics

Body weight of fish samples of (Sarotherodon galilaeus) used for the study ranged from 301 g-630 g with a mean of 451.75 ± 120.70 g. The samples were sorted into three size groups; group A: (301-410), group B: (411-520) and group C: (521-630). The mean total and standard lengths were 28.22 ± 3.20 cm and 23.46 ± 2.85 cm respectively for all samples (Table 2).

2.2 Processing yield

Fillet yield for all sample ranged from 113.49 ± 3.75 g to 191.95 ± 3.65 g with a mean of 148.66 ± 34.18 g. Remnant yield ranged from 125.91 ± 4.5 g to 257.28 ± 12.94 g for the groups with a mean of 188.85 ± 56.80 g. For waste yield, it ranged from 77.60 ± 5.86 g to 146.78 ± 3.49 g with a mean of 114.66 ± 31.05 g. The percentage fillet yield ranged from 31.70 ± 0.40% to 35.96 ± 0.71% with a mean percentage yield of 33.29 ± 1.90. The percentage remnant yield ranged from 39.89 ± 0.27% to 43.15 ± 0.79% with a mean of 41.47 ± 1.33% for all samples. The percentage waste yield ranged from 24.16 ± 0.93% to 26.92 ± 2.45% with a mean of 25.24 ± 1.21%. The percentile value (35.96 ± 0.7%) obtained for group A was the highest for fillet yield. The highest remnant percentile value (43.15 ± 0.79%) was recorded for group C. Group B had the highest percentage waste yield (26.92 ± 2.45%).

Weight range of snack stake before heat-drying was from 94 g to 102 g with a mean of 98.7±2.96 g, mean weight of spice used was 12.87±1.19 g per stake. Weight range of processed snack stake was from 30.3 g to 37.6 g with a mean weight of 33.7±2.18 g.

2.3 Sensory evaluation

The mean taste panel scores of the Sarotherodon galilaeus snack in the three treatments and control were as shown in Table 3. The evaluation showed that the product was organoleptically acceptable in terms of appearance, aroma, taste, juiciness, texture, crunchiness and acceptability based on the mean score of 3.0 and above obtained. The evaluation showed that for the appearance the mean score ranged from 3.69±0.86 to 4.13±0.83, snack treated with Ocimum gratissimum extract had the highest mean score (4.13±0.83). For aroma, the mean score ranged from 3.88±1.00 to 4.16±0.95, snack treated with the mixture of both Ocimum gratissimum and Vernonia amygdalina extract had the least mean score (3.88±1.00). For taste, the mean score ranged from 3.88±0.98 to 4.16±0.95 the control snack had the highest mean score of 4.16±0.95. For juiciness, the mean score ranged from 3.28±0.77 to 3.72±0.92, snack treated with Ocimum gratissimum extract had the highest mean score of 3.72±0.92. For texture, the mean score ranged from 3.75±0.76 to 4.00±0.98 snack treated with mixture of both Ocimum gratissimum and Vernonia amygdalina extract had the least mean score (3.75±0.76). For crunchiness, the mean score ranged from 3.78±1.01 to 4.06±1.08 with snack without treatment having the highest mean score (4.06±1.08)., the mean score for acceptability ranged from 4.03±1.06 to 4.22±0.91 snack treated with Ocimum gratissimum extract had the highest mean score (4.22±0.91). For probable price, the mean score ranged from 212.50±31.11 to 233.44±49.88 the highest mean score (233.44±49.88) was recorded for snack treated with Ocimum gratissimum crude extract. Scores for all the snacks sampled were not significantly different (p<0.05). The bar charts (Figure 1; Figure 2; Figure 3; Figure 4) showed the score frequency of each attribute. Juiciness had the highest proportion score frequency for the snacks with the three treatments and snack without treatment which represent satisfactory on the hedonic scale.

2.4 Economic analysis

The cost of materials procured for the research for one production cycle of the snack (i.e. 32 stakes) and condiment “Joy fish” is as shown in Table 4 and Table 5. Depreciation for equipment was ₦58.48. The total cost of materials for 32 stakes was ₦6,423.645 per production. The cost of producing the Joy fish was ₦2,326.7. The mean score for probable price by the panelists for each treatment (snack in mixture of Vernonia amygdalina and Ocimum gratissimum extract, snack in Ocimum gratissimum extract, snack in Vernonia amygdalina extract and snack without treatment) were ₦226.56±68.37, ₦212.50±31.11, ₦233.44±49.88 and ₦231.25±57.85 respectively. The mean score for probable price for all the snacks sample was ₦225.94±51.80. The probable price for 5 g of Joy fish was ₦30 and 140 was produced from one production, which makes the revenue for Joy fish to be ₦4,200. The revenue for all sample snacks was ₦7,230, making total revenue of ₦11,430. The profitability of the production of the 12 Sarotherodon galilaeus was ₦2,621.175, signifying that the production was profitable. The gross margin for the production was ₦2,679.655, while the total variable cost was ₦8,750.345. The net profit was calculated as ₦2,621.175, the total fixed cost (depreciation) was ₦58.48. The benefit-cost ratio on which the viability test was based was calculated as 0.297,6.

3 Discussion

In the processing of fish, the fillet yield is important in the estimation of the economic profitability and viability because consumers pay better price for products that have much flesh. Most of the essential nutrients are contained in the fillet of fish. Mean percentage fillet yield for Sarotherodon galilaeus used for this study was 33.29±1.90% for all sample which when compared with Oreochromis niloticus 35.7% of the same family (Cichlidae) falls within the same range (Rutten et al., 2004).

The sensory evaluation showed that snacks made from Sarotherodon galilaeus was organoleptically acceptable; according to the panel’s evaluation there was no significant difference (p<0.05) in terms of appearance, aroma, taste, juiciness, texture, crunchiness as well as acceptability and probable price. Appearance which mainly depends on the colour of the snack and a strong factor in determining product acceptability was in favour of snacks treated with Ocimum gratissimum extract. The preference for snack treated with Ocimum gratissimum extract could be as a result of the gloss impacted on the snack by the crude extract. Snack treated Ocimum gratissimium extract had the highest mean score for aroma which might be due to the natural fragrance of the plant. It has been reported that Ocimum gratissimum contains high percentage tannins and flavonoids ranging from 9.28%-14.32% (Edeoga et al., 2006). The higher taste score recorded for snack without plant extract could be due to the slight bitterness of snacks treated with crude extract it however, did not negatively affect the acceptability of snacks treated with extract as they still had satisfactory score. Juiciness and tenderness are two very important factors when it comes to meat quality. Both of which are influenced by the cut and how long it was cooked. These factors are also influenced by the age, amount of fat and collagen contained in particular cuts and to a small degree, brining. The fat content of Sarotherodon galilaeus is higher than that of Tilapia zilli according to Fawole et al. (2013) which probably accounted for the juiciness of Sarotherodon galilaeus snack. Sarotherodon galilaeus snack treated with Ocimum gratissimum extract had the highest mean score in this study. The texture and crunchiness of Sarotherodon galilaeus snack without treatment was higher compared to other snacks with treatments by the panelists. This might be due to the effects of the extract on the fish. The snack treated with Ocimum gratissimum extract was generally accepted compared to the other snacks, this could be due to the aroma of the snack treated with Ocimum gratissimum extract, as a result of the pungent inviting smell of the extract. The acceptability of snack treated with Ocimum gratissimum extract appear  to have influenced the price payable by the panelists as it also had the highest probable price.

The result of economic evaluation showed that the total revenue per production (32 stakes) of Sarotherodon galilaeus snack and Joy fish is ₦6,423 and ₦2,326.7 respectively. The price at which the fish (Sarotherodon galilaeus) was procured accounted for 46.2% of the production cost. Study on other similar snack processing such as Kilishi also revealed that the cost of raw materials was the highest of all cost components (Ahmadu et al., 2004). One major factor in commercialization of ideas/project is profitability and viability, the result of this study showed that production of Sarotherodon galilaeus snack was a profitable business venture especially when wastage is reduced through the production of condiments from the remnants. This is evidenced in the gross margin, net profit and benefit-cost ratio per production cycle.

4 Conclusion

Sarotherodon galilaeus snack treated with crude extract of Ocimum gratissimum, Vernonia amygdalina, mixture of both Ocimum gratissimum and Vernonia amygdalina extracts and the snack without treatment was organoleptically acceptable. However, consumer acceptability for Sarotherodon galilaeus treated with Ocimum gratissimum extract was highest. The production of Sarotherodon galilaeus snack can be a profitable business venture for the youth and women, thus enabling them to be self-employed with a small startup capital. It is also another method of proper utilization of fish. The production of these products will generate revenue and enhance sustainable development in rural/riverine communities and also help in poverty alleviation.

5 Recommendation

It is recommended that Sarotherodon galilaeus snack should be incorporated as part of healthy ‘Ready-To-Eat’ food products. Also the production of this snack should be encouraged in order to alleviate poverty and serve as a source of self-employment.

Preparation of fish snack should be explored as a means of processing fish catches to reduce post-harvest loss especially during glut in supply and to diversify fish products. Further studies on the utilization of other less acceptable freshwater fish/species as ‘Ready-To-Eat’ fish products should be carried out. Studies should be done on the effects of the use of charcoal/electric/gas oven in the processing of the snack.

Authors’ contributions

Dr. O. Oginni patiently supervised this work during the bench work/practical period and also read through the work. Ileogben A.T. and Akinrolabu T. are the students that did the work. Ileogben A.T. was the head of the group. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Acknowledgements

My gratitude goes to the Almighty God for the grace to finish this work. I appreciate my supervisor for his love, selfless contribution and time to Reding and correcting this work.

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